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Ecology: Annotated References



Animal Agriculture and Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria
  1. Coque TM, Tomayko JF, Ricke SC, Okhyusen PC, Murray BE (19996). "Vanconycin-resistant enterococci from nosocomial, community, and animal sources in the United States." Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 40: 2605-2609. Fecal samples from healthy volunteers, hospitalized patients and lagoon slurries from poultry farming were examined for vancomycin resistant enterococci. Study failed to find evidence of vancomycin resistant enterococci in community or environmental sources, suggesting these are not likely sources of vancomycin-resistant strains in hospital.

    2.
  2. Gay JM and Hunsaker ME (1993). "Isolation of Multiple Salmonella Serovars from a Dairy Two Years after a Clinical Salmonellosis Outbreak." J Am Vet Med Assoc 203(9): 1314-1320. Findings of study conducted two years after salmonellosis outbreak in free-stall dairy using recycled water in manure flush system. Infectious salmonellae found in environmental samples and fecal samples taken from herd.

    3.
  3. Huber WG, Korica D, Neal TP, Schnurrenberger PK, Martin RJ (1971). "Antibiotic Sensitivity Patterns and R Factors in Domestic and Wild Animals." Arch Environ Health 22: 561-567. Study of antibiotic resistance in domestic and wild animals. Domestic animals given antibiotics for health purposes and growth promotion showed high prevalence of multi-resistant organisms; less than 2% of wild animals had resistant organisms.

    4.
  4. Hwang A. (2000). "Tougher Germs, at Home and On the Farm". World Watch Sept/Oct 2000: 34-35. Summary of issues related to wide-spread use of antibiotics and antimicrobials in medicine, agriculture, and consumer products.


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  5. Levy, SB (1987). "Antibiotic Use for Growth Promotion in Animals: Ecologic and Public Health Consequences." J of Food Protect 50(7): 616-620. Ecological consequences of antibiotic use in animals, primarily as growth-promoters. This includes the spread of resistance to a single antibiotic among different genera as well as an increasingly common spread of multiple resistance, often on larger, more transferable plasmids.

    6.
  6. Marshall B (1990). "Inter- and Intraspecies Spread of Escherichia coli in a Farm Environment in the Absence of Antibiotic Usage." Proc. Natl Acad. Sci 87: 6609-6613. Spread of transferable plasmid studied in farm environment. Mutant bacteria carrying the transferable plasmid were isolated from donor animals and multiple secondary hosts that had direct or indirect contact with inoculated animals.

    7.
  7. Nakamura M, Fukazawa M, Yoshimura H; Koeda T (1980). "Drug Resistance and R Plasmids in Escherichia Coli Strains Isolated from Imported Pet Birds." Microbiol Immunol 24(12): 1131-1138. Escherichia coli isolated from pet birds imported into Japan were tested for drug resistance. Birds had been given prophylactic treatment of antibiotics. Single and multiple drug resistance was found on conjugative R plasmids.

    8.
  8. Stanley K, Cunningham R, Jones K (1998). "Isolation of Campylobacter jejuni from groundwater." J Appl Micrbiol 85(1): 187-191. Source of contamination of Campylobacter jejuni detected in polluted groundwater was dairy farm within hydrological catchment of polluted spring. Some strains of Campylobacter jejuni from water were identical to strains isolated from dairy herd.

    9.

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Aquaculture and Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria
  1. Alderman DJ, Hastings, TS (1998) "Antibiotic use in aquaculture: development of antibiotic resistance-potential for consumer health risks." Int J Food Sci Technol 33(2): 139-155. Review article outlining issues related to antibiotic use in aquaculture. Although large-scale use of antibiotics occurred during initial development of the industry, other approaches to controlling of bacterial diseases are now more widely used. This includes the development of an effective range of vaccines, and improved husbandry methods to reduce disease impact. However, the development of new species of fish may lead to emergence of bacterial diseases requiring antibiotic use for control.

    2.
  2. Bohm R.(1996). "Effects of residues of anti-infective agents in animal excretions on slurry treatment and the soil" Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr 103(7):264-268. (article in German). Antibiotic use as feed additives in animal husbandry generates populations of resistant bacteria in the animal gut. These are introduced via slurry into the ecosystem soil. The influence on the ecosystem soil does not seem significant, due to inactivation and dilution in slurry and soil, and the probability that this pathway contributes to the problems of antibiotic resistance in human medicine is viewed as low. No evidence could be found that residuals of antibiotics in slurry have a negative influence on the ecosystem soil, due to preliminary results obtained by similar field trials with disinfectants. The application of antibiotics in aquaculture should be regarded more critically.

    3.
  3. D'Aoust, J.Y. (1994) Salmonella and the international food trade. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 24: 11-31. A rapidly growing international trade in agricultural, aquacultural and manufactured food products has greatly facilitated the introduction of new Salmonella serovars within the geographical boundaries of importing countries. This article reviews the prevalence of Salmonella in selected food types that are subject to the import-export market and epidemiologic issues associated with movement of the food types. The increasing occurrence of strains that are resistant to one or more traditional antibacterial drugs (ampicillin, chloramphenicol and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) has resulted in the wider use of quinolones for the treatment of Salmonella septicaemia, although successful clinical results with these newer drugs are already being overshadowed by the emergence of resistant salmonellae.


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  4. Georgiadis MP, Gardner IA, Hedrick RP. (2001). "The role of epidemiology in the prevention, diagnosis, and control of infectious diseases of fish" Prev Vet Med 48(4):287-302 Epidemiologic methods are essential to understanding infectious diseases in aquaculture, but are poorly used and understood by fish-health scientists and aquaculturists. The article focuses on risk-factor studies, risk analysis and infectious-disease modeling. The article also describes characteristics of confined fish populations that make them ideal for developing and testing epidemiologic models.

    5.
  5. Grave K, Lillehaug A, Lunestad BT, Horsberg TE. (1999) "Prudent use of antibacterial drugs in Norwegian aquaculture? Surveillance by the use of prescription data." Acta Vet Scand 40(3):185-95. Antibacterial drug treatment in aquaculture during 1991-1996 was investigated using prescription data provided by the Norwegian Government Fish Inspection and Quality Control Service (NFCS). The majority of prescriptions (n = 5401) were for Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout (salmonids), while 383 prescriptions were for other species. The prescribing of antibacterial drugs proved to be almost completely reported to NFCS, which is responsible for the control of drug residues in farmed fish in Norway.

    6.
  6. Guardabassi L, Dalsgaard A, Olsen JE. (1999) "Phenotypic characterization and antibiotic resistance of Acinetobacter spp.isolated from aquatic sources." J Appl Microbiol 87(5):659-67. A total of 99 Acinetobacter isolates from sewage, freshwater aquaculture habitats, trout intestinal contents and frozen shrimps was characterized phenotypically and antibiotic susceptibility patterns determined. Acinetobacter isolates from sewage were generally more reactive and resistant to antimicrobial agents than isolates from other samples. Different strains, often belonging to different genomic species, were isolated from sites situated upstream and downstream of the discharge point of a pharmaceutical plant. This finding supported the hypothesis that the waste effluent from the pharmaceutical plant was likely to cause a change in the distribution of Acinetobacter spp by selecting and/or introducing antibiotic-resistant strains into the recipient sewers.


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  7. Hayes MV, Thomson CJ, Amyes SGB. (1994): "Three beta-lactamases isolated from Aeromonas salmonicida, including a carbapenemase not detectable by conventional methods." Eur J of Clin Microbiol and Infect Diseases 13: 805-811. The beta-lactamases of seven strains of Aeromonas salmonicida resistant to amoxicillin and responsible for furunculosis in farmed Atlantic salmon in Scotland were examined to establish the mechanisms of beta-lactam resistance.

    8.
  8. Herwig RP, Gray JP, et al. (1996). "Antibacterial Resistant Bacteria in Surficial Sediments near Salmon Net-Cage Farms in Puget Sound, Washington." Aquaculture 149: 273-283. Study of resistance to three antibacterials in bacteria taken from sediments of three fish farms located in Puget Sound. Highest percentage of antibacterial resistance found in sediment from farm using highest amount of antibacterials.

  9. Ho SP, Hsu TY, Che MH, Wang WS.(2000). "Antibacterial effect of chloramphenicol, thiamphenicol and florofenicol against aquatic animal bacteria." J Vet Med Sci 62(5):479-85. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was measured to evaluate the antibacterial activities of chloramphenicol (CP), thiamphenicol (TP) and florfenicol (FFC) against the aquatic bacterial isolates from soft-shell turtles, fish and shellfishThere were partially-complete resistance of the resistant isolates among CP, TP and FFC. The findings indicated that previous treatment might affect the choice of drug to use for aquatic bacterial diseases.

    10.
  10. Huys G, Rhodes G, McGann P, Denys R, Pickup R, Hiney M, Smith P, Swings J. (2000). "Characterization of oxytetracycline-resistant heterotrophic bacteria originating from hospital and freshwater fishfarm environments in England and Ireland." Syst Appl Microbiol 23(4):599-606. Report of a study comparing the antibiotic tolerance among culturable oxytetracyline-resistant (Ot(r)) heterotrophic strains isolated from two aquatic environments. One environment represented human activities in health care; the other aquaculture involving freshwater fish farms. Isolates from health care effluents of Irish hospital strains comprised higher frequencies of multi-tolerance than isolates from fish farm environments. Isolates originating from an English aquaculture site consisted almost entirely of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia (86%) exhibiting high frequencies of tolerance to ampicillin and streptomycin.


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  11. Inglis V, Cafini M, Yoshida T. (1995) The interaction of trimethoprim and quinolones against gram-negative fish pathogens" J Appl Bacteriol.79(2):135-40. The effects of trimethoprim combined with other non-sulphonamide antibacterial agents, especially oxolinic acid and nalidixic acid, was evaluated for Gram-negative fish pathogens. Few synergistic effects were seen and the combinations were not effective in preventing emergence of antibiotic resistance.

    12.
  12. Park ED, Lightner DV, Park DL. (1994). "Antimicrobials in shrimp aquaculture in the United States: regulatory status and safety concerns." Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 138:1-20. There are three general areas of concern regarding human health when chemotherapeutants are used in aquaculture: (1) residues of drugs in fish destined for human consumption; (2) development of drug resistance in human pathogenic bacteria; and (3) direct toxic effects to humans from handling of drugs. Oxytetracycline (OTC) and Romet-30 are two antibacterials currently approved in the U.S. for catfish and salmonid aquaculture. Shrimp aquaculture facilities outside of the U.S. routinely use these and other drugs to treat of bacterial disease outbreaks.

    13.
  13. Ringo, E., Gatesoupe, F.J. (1998). "Lactic acid bacteria in fish: a review" Aquaculture 160: 177-203. Review evaluating lactic acid bacteria in fish. Studies indicate that Streptococcus, Leuconostoc, Lactobacillus, and Carnobacterium are part of the normal microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract in healthy fish. Pathogenic strains of such lactic acid bacteria as Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Carnobacterium and Lactococcus are also found in various organs. Diseases caused by these organisms seem to spread with the development of fish culture. Antibiotic treatments and vaccinations have been proposed to cure or prevent these diseases. It has also been reported that some lactic acid bacteria isolated from the gastrointestinal tract of fish can act as probiotics. These candidates are able to colonise the gut, and act antagonistically against Gram-negative fish pathogens. These harmless bacteriocin-producing strains may reduce the need to use antibiotics in future aquaculture.


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  14. Rossolini GM Walsh T, Amicosante G (1996). "The Aeromonas metalo-beta-lactamases: genetics, enzymology, and contribution to drug resistance." Microbial drug resistance 2:245-252. Review article describing the contribution of metalo-beta-lactamases of Aeromonads to drug resistance. Aeromonads are environmental microorganisms that can be responsible for both human and animal infections. Individual Aeromonas strains can produce up to three different, inducible, chromosomally encoded beta-lactamases, including a cephalosporinase, a penicillinase, and a metallo-beta-lactamase, which contribute to beta-lactam resistance in members of this genus. An overview on the distribution, genetics, and enzymology of these enzymes and their and contribution to microbial drug resistance is discussed.

    15.
  15. Schmidt AS, Bruun MS, Dalsgaard I, Pedersen K, Larsen JL (2000). "Occurrence of antimicrobial resistance in fish-pathogenic and environmental bacteria associated with four danish rainbow trout farms." Appl Environ Microbiol 66(11):4908-15. Surveillance of bacterial susceptibility to five antimicrobial agents was performed during a 1-year period in and around four freshwater fish farms situated along a stream in western Denmark. The levels of antibiotic resistance among the culturable fraction of microorganisms (Flavobacterium psychophilum, Yersinia Ruckeri and Aeromonas isolates) in fish, water, and sediment samples were studied. F. psychrophilum isolates showed a decrease in response to most antimicrobial agents presently available for use in Danish aquaculture. The collected Y. ruckeri isolates remained largely sensitive to all therapeutic substances. Results indicated a substantial impact of fish farming on several groups of bacteria associated with aquacultural environments.

  16. Son R, Rusul G, Sahilah AM, Zainuri A, Raha AR, Salmah I (1997). "Antibiotic resistance and plasmid profile of Aeromonas hydrophila isolates from cultured fish, Telapia (Telapia mossambica)" Lett Appl Microbiol 24(6):479-82. Strains of Aeromonas hydrophila isolated from skin lesions of the common freshwater fish, Telapia mossambica, were screened for the presence of plasmid DNA and tested for susceptibility to10 antimicrobial agents. Of the 21 fish isolates examined, all were resistant to ampicillin and sensitive to gentamycin. Most isolates were resistant to streptomycin (57%), tetracycline (48%) and erythromycin (43%). It was not possible to associate the presence of a plasmid with antibiotic resistance in all isolates.


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  17. Vinitnantharat S, Gravningen K, Greger E. (1999). "Fish vaccines" Adv Vet Med 41:539-50. Fish vaccines can significantly reduce specific disease-related losses resulting in a reduction of antibiotics use. The final result is the decrease of overall unit costs and more predictable production. Fish vaccines have advantages over use of antibiotics because vaccines are natural biological materials that leave no residue in the product or environment, and will not result in increases in antibiotic resistant strains of disease organisms. Even though commercial vaccines for aquaculture work really well in terms of protecting the fish against certain diseases, they should be used only as part of the overall health management program.

    18.
  18. Young, HK (1994). "Do nonclinical uses of antibiotics make a difference?" Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 15(7):484-7. Review article discussing potential effects of nonclinical uses of antibiotics in agriculture and aquaculture on the continuing emergence of antibiotic resistance. An increasing range of antibacterial compounds is being used for nonclinical purposes, especially in the fields of animal husbandry and fish farming. As in human medicine, exposure to antibiotics has lead to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in animal populations.

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Plant Agriculture and Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria
  1. McManus PS (2000). "Antibiotic use and microbial resistance in plant agriculture." ASM News 66 (8): 4480449. The article presents practical and political aspects of antibiotic use in plans and speculates on aspects of plant use that may affect development and persistence of antibiotic resistance genes in agroecosystems. The article also challenges funding agencies to see antibiotic resistance as a universal problem that requires multidisciplinary research and education.

    2.
  2. Schnabel EL (1999). "Distribution of tetracycline resistance genes and transposons among phylloplane bacteria in Michigan apple orchards." Appl Environ Microbiol 65 (11): 4898-4907. No information available.

    3.
  3. Sundin GW, Bender CL (1994). "Distribution of the streptomycin-resistance transposon, Tn5393 among phylloplane and soil bacteria from managed agricultural habitats." Canadian J of Microbiol 41(9): 792-799. The distribution of streptomycin resistance genes associated with the resistance transposon Tn5393 was examined in bacteria isolated from phylloplane and soil bacteria of ornamental pear and tomato plants. The pear nurseries had previously applied streptomycin to leaves, although the tomato fields had no history of application. The highest occurrence of resistant bacteria was seen in the ornamental pear trees. No evidence was seen that repeated use of streptomycin resulted in the development of tetracycline resistance.


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  4. Sundin GW (1996). "Dissemination of the strA-strB streptomycin-resistance genes among commensal and pathogenic bacteria from humans, animals and plants." Molecular Ecology 5(1): 133-43. The strA-strB resistance genes encode streptomycin-inactivating enzymes and are distributed worldwide. In isolates from plants the strA-strB genes are encoded on the Tn3-type transposon generally borne on conjugative plasmids. The wide distribution of the strA-strB genes suggests that transfer events between humans, animals and plants has occurred.

    5.
  5. Witte W (2000). "Ecological impact of antibiotic use in animals on different complex microflora environment" International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 14: 321-325. Spread of antibiotic resistance occurs in different ways by the spread of wide host range plasmids and translocatable elements. The route of transmission from animals to humans via meat products is well-established, although other routes of transmission, such as tby water and food plants is less well understood and investigated. It is not known, for example, whether transfer results from rare but important events or occurs through more frequent exchange.

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Antibiotic Residues in Water
  1. Dove R (2000). "American Waters Fail Drug Tests" Neuse Riverkeeper.

  2. Goni-Urriza M, Pineau L, Capdepuy M, Roques C, Caumette P, Quentin C (2000). "Antimicrobial Resistance of Mesophilic Aeromonas spp. Isolated from Two European Rivers." J Antimicrob Chemother 46(2): 297-301. Patterns of antibiotic and antiseptic/disinfectant resistance in 138 non-redundant strains of Aeromonas spp.

  3. Goni-Urriza M, Capdepuy M, Arpin C, Raymond N, Caumette P, Quentin C (2000). "Impact of an Urban Effluent on Antibiotic Resistance of Riverine Enterobacteriaceae and Aeromonas spp." Appl Environ Microbiol 66(1): 125-132. Study of water samples from Arga River upstream and down stream from wastewater discharge of city of Pamplona. Higher rates of resistance in downstream water.

  4. Hirsch R, Ternes T, Haberer K, Kratz KL (1999). "Occurrence of Antibiotics in the Aquatic Environment." Sci Total Environ 225 (1-2): 109-118. Analysis of various environmental water samples in Germany for 18 antibiotic substances. Antibiotics found in water from sewage treatment plant effluents and surface water samples. Minor amounts of antibiotics found in ground water samples from agricultural areas.

  5. Isbister J, Huff T, et al. (1999). "Ecological Effects of Antibiotics in Runoff from an Eastern Shore Tributary of the Chesapeake Bay." United States Geological Survey: Effects of Animal Feeding Operations (AFOs) on Hydrologic Resources and the Environment, Fort Collins, Colorado.


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  6. Meyer M, Bumgarner J et al. (1999). "Occurrence of Antibiotics in Liquid Waste at Confined Animal Feeding Operations and in Surface and Ground Water." United States Geological Survey: Effects of Animal feeding Operations (AFOs) on Hydrologic Resources and the Environment. Fort Collins, Colorado.

    7.
  7. Zuccato E, Calamari D, Natangelo M, Fanelli R (2000). "Presence of Therapeutic Drugs in the Environment. Lancet 355: 1789-1790. Study conducted in Lombardy, Italy to determine extent of contamination of drinking water, river waters and sediment with selected therapeutic drugs. Study found measurable amounts of drugs in all sources, suggesting that pharmaceutical products are widespread contaminants.
Antibiotic Residues in Soil
  1. Kaneene JB and Ahl AS (1987). "Drug Residues in Dairy Cattle Industry: Epidemiological Evaluation of Factors Influencing their Occurrence." Journal of Dairy Science 70(10): 2176-2180. Study of dairy farmers to determine management factors associated with occurrence of drug residues in environment, and to evaluate attitudes and knowledge of farmers about drug residues.

    2.
  2. Karpati A, Rubin C, et al. (1999). "Documented and Potential Human-Health Issues Related to Animal Feeding Operations." United States Geological Survey: Effects of Animal Feeding Operations on Hydrologic Resources and the Environment, Fort Collins, Colorado.

    3.
  3. Zuccato E, Calamari D, Natangelo M, Fanelli R (2000). "Presence of Therapeutic Drugs in the Environment. Lancet 355: 1789-1790. Study conducted in Lombardy, Italy to determine extent of contamination of drinking water, river waters and sediment with selected therapeutic drugs. Study found measurable amounts of drugs in all sources, suggesting that pharmaceutical products are widespread contaminants.
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Mechanisms of Antibiotic Resistance
  1. Adams LG and Templeton JW (1998). "Genetic Resistance to Bacterial Diseases of Animals." Rev Sci Tech Off Int Epiz 17(1): 200-219. Article describes possible mechanisms of genetic resistance in livestock and potential use of selective breeding mechanisms to increase genetic resistance in livestock and control losses attributable to infectious disease.

    2.
  2. Bjorkman J, Nagaev, Berg OC, Hughes D, Andersson DI (2000). "Effects of Environment on Compensatory Mutations to Amerliorate Costs of Antibiotic Resistance." Science 287: 1479-1482. The biological cost of bacterial fitness can be compensated by second-site mutations. Evolution to reduce costs of antibiotic resistance was shown to take different trajectories, depending upon growth or selection conditions.

    3.
  3. Coque TM, Tomayko JF, Ricke SC, Okhyusen PC, Murray BE (1996). "Vanconycin-resistant enterococci from nosocomial, community, and animal sources in the United States." Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 40: 2605-2609. Fecal samples from healthy volunteers, hospitalized patients and lagoon slurries from poultry farming were examined for vancomycin resistant enterococci. Study failed to find evidence of vancomycin resistant enterococci in community or environmental sources, suggesting these are not likely sources of vancomycin-resistant strains in hospitals.

    4.
  4. Doucet-Populaire F, Trieu-Cuot P, Dosbaa I, Andremont A, Courvalin P (1991). "Inducible Transposon Tn1545 from Enterococcus faecalis to Listeria monocytogenes in the Digestive Tracts of Gnotobiotic Mice." Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 35: 185-187. The frequency of transfer of a conjugative transposon from Enterococcus faecalis to Listeria monocytogenes was increased 20-fold in vitro and 10-fold in vivo in the presence of subinhibitory amounts of tetracycline.


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  5. Huber WG, Korica D, Neal TP, Schnurrenberger PK, Martin RJ (1971). "Antibiotic Sensitivity Patterns and R Factors in Domestic and Wild Animals." Arch Environ Health 22: 561-567. Study of antibiotic resistance in domestic and wild animals. Domestic animals given antibiotics for health purposes and growth promotion showed high prevalence of multi-resistant organisms; less than 2% of wild animals had resistant organisms.

    6.
  6. Hwang A. (2000). "Tougher Germs, at Home and On the Farm". World Watch Sept/Oct 2000: 34-35. Summary of issues related to wide-spread use of antibiotics and antimicrobials in medicine, agriculture, and consumer products.

    7.
  7. Levy, SB (1986). "Environmental Dissemination of Microbes and their Plasmids." Swiss Biotech 5:32-36. Data from molecular biology and epidemiology reveal a diverse exchange of antibiotic resistance genes in nature. This exchange can serve as a model to elucidate the dissemination of genetic material among environmental microorganisms.

    8.
  8. Levy, SB (1987). "Antibiotic Use for Growth Promotion in Animals: Ecologic and Public Health Consequences." J of Food Protect 50(7): 616-620. Ecological consequences of antibiotic use in animals, primarily as growth-promoters. This includes the spread of resistance to a single antibiotic among different genera as well as an increasingly common spread of multiple resistance, often on larger, more transferable plasmids.

  9. Marshall B (1990). "Inter- and Intraspecies Spread of Escherichia coli in a Farm Environment in the Absence of Antibiotic Usage." Proc. Natl Acad. Sci 87: 6609-6613. Spread of transferable plasmid studied in farm environment. Mutant bacteria carrying the transferable plasmid were isolated from donor animals and multiple secondary hosts that had direct or indirect contact with inoculated animals.

    10.
  10. McKeon DM, Calabrese JP, et al. (1995). "Antibiotic Resistant Gram-Negative Bacteria in Rural Groundwater Supplies." Water Research 29(8): 1902-1908. Examination of 250 coliform and noncoliform bacteria isolated from rural, untreated groundwater supplies in West Virginia for antibiotic resistance to 16 antibiotics. All noncoliforms and 87% of coliforms were resistant to at least one antibiotic. Multiple resistance also found.


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  11. Nakamura M, Fukazawa M, Yoshimura H; Koeda T (1980). "Drug Resistance and R Plasmids in Escherichia Coli Strains Isolated from Imported Pet Birds." Microbiol Immunol 24(12): 1131-1138. Escherichia coli isolated from pet birds imported into Japan were tested for drug resistance. Birds had been given prophylactic treatment of antibiotics. Single and multiple drug resistance was found on conjugative R plasmids.

    12.
  12. Petrocheilou V, Richmond MH, Bennett PM (1979). "The Persistence of R-Plasmid-Carrying E. Coli in a Married Couple, One of Whom Was Receiving Antibiotics." Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 16(2): 225-230. Study examining aerobic gram-negative instestinal flora of husband and wife over 20 month period. Although wife received antibiotics, husband did not; however, both excreted same resistant strains of E. coli.

    13.
  13. Torres C, Reguera JA, Sanmartin MJ, Perez-Diaz JC, Baquero F (1994). "VanA-Mediated Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcus spp. In Sewage." J Antimicrob Chemother 33: 553-561. Two vancomycin resistant Enterococcus strains were recovered from sewage samples taken from collector in Longrano, Spain. VanA protein detected in each strain. This represents the first confirmed report of vanA mediated vancomycin resistance in Enterococcus durans.

    14.
  14. Witte W (2000). "Ecological Impact of Antibiotic Use in Animals on Different Complex Microflora: Environment." International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 14: 321-325. Examination of issues involved in transfer of resistance factors in ecosystem, including role of commensals in ecosystems, routes of transmission, and means of transmission.


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