Lead Poisoning
This website is intended to address the prevalence of lead poisoning and the
interconnection of this issue between species and taxonomic groups.
Mechanism of Lead Poisoning:
Lead exerts its toxic effects by mimicking and substituting for
calcium in many fundamental cellular processes. By utilizing anion
exchangers and calcium dependent channels and pumps, lead is able
to cross cell membranes and bind to proteins within cells. These
various proteins and calcium binding sites are not able to function
properly when lead is attached. For example, within red blood cells,
lead binds to hemoglobin and prevents those cells from carrying
oxygen efficiently. Often, lead has up to 1000 times higher affinity
for these binding sites than calcium itself, and will prevent calcium
from binding. Specifically, lead has been found to bind calmodulin
and increase release of neurotransmitters, as well as binding the
enzyme protein kinase C to stimulate gene expression and influence
many physiological processes throughout the body. When oxidized,
lead can also pass quickly through the blood-brain barrier and act
as a neurotoxin, accumulating in astrocytes and interfering with
the dopaminergic, cholinergic, and glutamatergic neurotransmitter
systems. More information on the mechanisms of lead poisoning:
Scientific studies on the mechanisms of lead poisoning:
- Lachant, N.A., A. Tomoda, and K.R. Tanaka, Inhibition of the
Pentose Phosphate Shunt by Lead: A Potential Mechanism for Hemolysis
in Lead Poisoning. Blood, 1984. 63(3): p. 518.
- Bergdahl, I., Lead binding proteins - a way to understand lead
toxicity? Analusis, 1998. 26: p. M81-M84.
- Szymanski, M.Z.B.M., et al., Lead Toxicity through the leadzyme.
Mutation Research, 2005. 589(2): p. 103-110.
- Trope I, Lopez-Villegas D, Cecil KM, Lenkinski RE. Exposure
to lead appears to selectively alter metabolism of cortical gray
matter. Pediatrics 2001:107;1437-42.??
- Nihei MK, Desmond NL, McGlothan JL, Kuhlmann AC, Guilarte TR.
N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor units changes are associated with
lead-induced deficits of long-term potentiation and spatial learning.
Neuroscience 2000:99;233-42
Aquatic Birds:
Lead poisoning in aquatic birds may occur when spent lead shot is mistaken for gravel (which is normally consumed to aid in digestion) and ingested. Birds
may also be exposed to lead when feeding on fish attached to lead fishing gear such as sinkers or jig heads. The Tufts Wildlife Clinic is conducting an
ongoing study of the prevalence of lead poisoning in aquatic birds, particularly the Common Loon. In addition to loons, frequent victims of lead poisoning
include swans, pelicans, geese, ducks, cormorants, cranes, and herons. Links to more information on lead poisoning in loons and other aquatic birds:
Scientific studies on the mechanisms of lead poisoning:
- Spears, B.L., J.A. Hansen, and D.J. Audet, Blood Lead concentrations in waterfowl utilizing lake Coer d'Alene, Idaho. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 2007. 52(1): p. 121-128.
- Guillemain, M., et al., Lead shot and teal (Anas crecca) in the Camargue, southern France: Effects of embedded and ingested pellets on survival. Biological Conservation, 2007. 137(4): p. 567-576.
- Svanberg, F., et al., Lead Isotopes and lead shot ingestion in the globally threatened marbled teal (Marmaronetta angustirostris) and white-headed duck (Oxyura leucocephala). Science of the Total Environment, 2006. 370(2-3): p. 416-424.
- Degernes, L., et al., Epidemiological Investigation of Lead Poisoning in Trumpeter and Tundra Swans in Washington State, USA 2000-2002. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 2006. 42(2): p. 345-358.
- Burger, J. and M. Gochfeld, Effects of Lead on Learning in Herring Gulls: An Avian Wildlife Model for Neurobehavioral Defects. Neurotoxicology, 2005. 26(4): p. 615-624.
- Sidor, I.F., et al., Mortality of Common Loons in New England 1987 to 2000. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 2003. 39(2): p. 306-315.
- Scheuhammer, A.M., et al., Lead fishing sinkers and jigs in Canada: Review of their use patterns and toxic impacts on wildlife, in Canadian Wildlife Service Occasional Papers, C.W.S.o.E. Canada, Editor. 2003, Canadian Wildlife Service: Ottawa, Ontario. p. 3-45.
- Pokras, M.A. and R. Chafel, Lead toxicosis from ingested fishing sinkers in adult common loons (Gavia immer) in New England. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 1992. 23: p. 92-97.
- Mateo, R., et al., Lead Poisoning in wild birds from southern Spain: A comparative study of wetland areas and species affected and trends over time. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 2007. 66(1): p. 119-126
Predatory Birds:
Predatory birds are at risk of developing lead poisoning by feeding
on lead-contaminated wildlife. This includes the consumption of
fish containing lead fishing gear and scavenging the remains of
animals left by hunters (such as deer gut piles and carcasses),
which may contain lead bullet fragments. Predatory birds affected
in this way include Bald and Golden Eagles, kestrels, and the endangered
California Condor. Links to more information on lead poisoning in
eagles and other predatory birds:
Recent scientific studies on lead poisoning in raptors:
- Sorenson, K.J. and L.J. Burnett, Lead concentrations in the blood of Big Sur California Condors. 2007, Ventana Wildlife Society: Salinas, CA.
- Pain, D.J., et al., Lead Contamination and associated disease in captive and reintroduced red kites Milvus milvus in England. Science of the Total Environment, 2007. 376: p. 116-127.
- Thacker, P.D., Condors are shot full of lead. Environmental Science and Technology, 2006. 40(19): p. 5826.
- Pattee, O.H., et al., Lead Poisoning in Captive Andean Condors (Vultur gryphus). Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 2006. 42(4): p. 772-779.
- Church, M.E., et al., Ammunition is the principal source of lead accumulated by California condors reintroduced to the wild. Environmental Science and Technology, 2006. 40(19): p. 6143-6150.
Other Birds and Wildlife:
Upland game birds, songbirds, and small mammals often consume lead shot and fishing sinkers when they browse for small pebbles, seeds, or other food items. Predatory species may be secondarily affected by lead when they eat animals that have been shot or have ingested lead from shot, sinkers, or the environment. Species affected by these routes include turkeys, woodcock, songbirds, fish, and reptiles. Links to more information on lead poisoning in wildlife species:
Scientific research on lead poisoning in wildlife species:
- Strom, S., et al., Lead Contamination in American Woodcock (Scolopax minor) from Wisconsin. Archives of Environmental Contaminant Toxicology, 2005. 49(3): p. 396-402.
- Nam, D. and D. Lee, Possible routes for lead accumulation in feral pigeons. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 2006. 121(1-3): p. 356-361.
- Fisher, I.J., D.J. Pain, and V.G. Thomas, A review of lead poisoning from ammunition sources in terrestrial birds. Biological Conservation, 2006. 131: p. 421-432.
- Scheifler, R., et al., Lead Concentrations in feathers and blood of common blackbirds (Turdus merula) and in earthworms inhabiting unpolluted and moderately polluted areas. Science of the Total Environment, 2006. 371(1-3): p. 197-205.
- Roux, K.E. and P.P. Marra, The presence and impact of environmental lead in passerine birds along an urban to rural land use gradient. Archives of Environmental Contaminant Toxicology, 2007. 53(2): p. 261-268.
- Pauli, J.N. and S.W. Buskirk, Recreational shooting of Prairie Dogs: A portal for Lead entering wildlife food chains. Journal of Wildlife Management, 2007. 71(1): p. 103-108.
- Schulz, J.H., et al., Spent-shot availability and ingestion on areas managed for mourning doves. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 2002. 30: p. 112-120.
- Vyas, N., J. Spann, and G. Heinz, Lead shot toxicity to passerines. Environmental Pollution, 2001. 111(1): p. 135-138.
- Lewis, L., et al., Lead Toxicosis and Trace Element levels in wild birds and mammals at a firearms training facility. Archives of Environmental Contaminant Toxicology, 2001. 41(2): p. 208-214.
- Lewis, L. and S. Schweitzer, Lead Poisoning in a northern bobwhite in Georgia. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 2000. 36(1): p. 180-183.
Humans:
People, especially children, are susceptible to lead poisoning via a variety of sources including lead sinkers, paint, soil, and even water and air in particular areas of the world. Information on the hazards of lead to adults and children:
Recent scientific studies on lead poisoning in humans:
- Weidenhamer, J.D. and M.L. Clement, Leaded electronic waste is a possible source material for lead contaminated jewelery. Chemosphere, 2007.
- Shih, R.A., et al., Cumulative lead dose and cognitive function in adults: a review of studies that measured both blood lead and bone lead. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2007. 115(3): p. 483-492.
- Rosner, D. and G. Markowitz, The politics of lead toxicology and the devastating consequences for all children. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 2007.
- Ronchetti, R., Fetal lead exposure and infant mental development index. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2007. 115(4): p. A186.
- Nevin, R., Understanding international crime trends: The legacy of preschool lead exposure. Environmental Research, 2007. 104(3): p. 315-336.
- Navas-Acien, A., et al., Lead Exposure and Cardiovascular Disease- A systemic review. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2007. 115(3): p. 472-482.
- Muntner, P., et al., Association of tibia lead and blood lead with end stage renal disease: A pilot study of African Americans. Environmental Research, 2007. 104(3): p. 396-401.
- Mateo, R., et al., Transfer of lead from shot pellets to game meat during cooking. Science of the Total Environment, 2007. 372(2-3): p. 480-485.
- Kauffman, J.F., et al., Lead in pharmaceutical products and dietary supplements. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 2007. 48(2): p. 128-134.
- Menke, A., et al., Blood Lead below 0.48micromol/L (10microg/dL) and mortality among US adults. Circulation, 2006. 114: p. 1388-1394.
- Johansen, P., et al., Lead shot from hunting as a source of lead in human blood. Environmental Pollution, 2006. 142: p. 93-97.
- Hu, H., et al., Fetal Lead exposure at each stage of pregnancy as a predictor of infant mental development. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2006. 114(11): p. 1730-1735.
Domestic Animals:
Lead poisoning is a common occurrence for many domestic species in the United States and internationally. In cattle, lead poisoning commonly occurs by consumption of discarded lead-containing farm supplies, batteries, paints, and machinery. Lead poisoning of household pets such as dogs, cats, guinea pigs, iguanas, and birds also occurs, due most often to the ingestion of lead-based paint, but also to an assortment of additional sources including linoleum, fishing sinkers, toys for pets and children, curtain weights, and solder. Links to more information on lead poisoning in domestic species:
Recent scientific studies on lead poisoning in domestic animals:
- Swarup, D., et al., Changes in plasma hormones profile and liver function in cows naturally exposed to lead and cadmium around different industrial areas. Research in Veterinary Science, 2007. 82(1): p. 16-21.
- Patra, R., et al., Tail hair as an indicator of environmental exposure of cows to lead and cadmium in different industrial areas. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 2007. 66(1): p. 127-131.
- Krametter-Froetscher, R., et al., Toxic effects seen in a herd of beef cattle following exposure to ash residues contaminated by lead and mercury. The Veterinary Journal, 2007. 174(1): p. 99-105.
- Sharpe, R. and C. Livesey, Lead Poisoning in Cattle and its implications for food safety. Veterinary Record, 2006. 159: p. 71-74.
- Patra, R., et al., Trace Mineral Profile in blood and hair from cattle environmentally exposed to lead and cadmium around different industrial units. Journal of Veterinary Medicine Series A, 2006. 53(10): p. 511-517.
- Doumouchtsis, S.K., N.S. Martin, and J.B. Robins, "Veterinary" diagnosis of lead poisoning in pregnancy. British Medical Journal, 2006. 333(7582): p. 1302-1303.
- Balagangatharathilagar, M., et al., Blood lead level in dogs from urban and rural areas of India and its relation to animal and environmental variables. Science of the Total Environment, 2006. 359(1-3): p. 130-134.
- Marcal, W.S., et al., Levels of lead in mineral salt commercial mixtures for beef cattle. Journal of Veterinary Science, 2003. 4(3): p. 235-238.
- Liu, Z., Lead Poisoning combined with cadmium in sheep and horses in the vicinity of non-ferrous metal smelters. Science of the Total Environment, 2003. 309(1-3): p. 117-126.
- Palacios, H., et al., Lead Poisoning of Horses in the vicinity of a battery recycling plant. Science of the Total Environment, 2002. 290(1-3): p. 81-89.
- Dwivedi, S., et al., Lead Poisoning in cattle and buffalo near primary lead-zinc smelter in India. Veterinary and Human Toxicology, 2001. 43(2): p. 93-94.
- Casteel, S.W., et al., Estimation of relative bioavailability of lead in soil and soil-like materials using young swine. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2006. 114(8): p. 1162-1171.
Environment:
Due to years of use in gasoline, paints, and other products, lead is present in the air, water, and soils of many ecosystems and exerts effects at all ecological levels. Human activities, such as fuel combustion, industrial processes, corrosion of leaded pipelines, and solid waste combustion, continue to contribute to lead levels in soil and water. Once in the environment, lead cannot be broken down; it can only converted to other forms. Thus, lead accumulates in the bodies of soil and water organisms including phytoplankton, shellfish, plants, and microbes. Health effects may occur in these animals and plants, or in the organisms that consume them. Links to information about effects of lead in soil, water, plants, and the environment:
Recent scientific studies on lead poisoning in the environment:
- Suicmez, M., et al., Toxic Effects of Lead on the liver and gills of oncorhynchus mykiss WALBAUM 1792. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 2007. 77(4): p. 551-558.
- Spokas, E.G., et al., Tissue lead concentration during chronic exposure of Pimephales promelas (Fathead minnow) to lead nitrate in aquarium water. Environmental Science and Technology, 2006. 40(21): p. 6852-6858.
- Sparling, D.W., S. Krest, and M. Ortiz-Santaliestra, Effects of lead contaminated sediment on Rana sphenocephala tadpoles. Archives of Environmental Contaminant Toxicology, 2006. 51(3): p. 458-466.
- Sorvari, J., et al., Heavy metal pollution disturbs immune response in wild ant populations. Environmental Pollution, 2007. 145(1): p. 324-328
- Rotkittikhun, P., et al., Growth and lead accumulation by the grasses Vetiveria zizanioides and Thysanolaena maxima in lead contaminated soil amended with pig manure and fertilizer: a glasshouse study. Chemosphere, 2007. 66(1): p. 45-53.
- Rantalainen, M.-L., et al., Lead contamination of an old shooting range affecting the local ecosystem- a case study with a holistic approach. Science of the Total Environment, 2006. 369(1-3): p. 99-108.
- Patel, M., et al., Renal responses to acute lead waterborne exposure in the freshwater rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquatic Toxicology, 2006. 80(4): p. 362-371.
- MacFarlane, G., et al., The Akoya pearl oyster shell as an archival monitor of lead exposure. Environmental Pollution, 2006. 143(1): p. 166-173.
- Wilde, E., et al., Phytoextraction of lead from firing range soil by Vetiver grass. Chemosphere, 2005. 61(10): p. 1451-1457.
- Kaznina, N., et al., Effect of lead on the photosynthetic apparatus of annual grasses. Biology Bulletin, 2005. 32(2): p. 147-150.
- Labare, M.P., et al., Evaluation of lead movement from the abiotic to biotic at a small arms firing range. Environmental Geology, 2004. 46(6-7): p. 750-754.
- Scheuhammer, A., et al., Lead and stable lead isotope ratios in soil, earthworms, and bones of American woodcock (Scolopax minor) from eastern Canada. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 2003. 22: p. 2585-2591.
- Reue, M.K. and D.J. Weiss, Anthropogenic lead dynamics in the terrestrial and marine environment. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 2002. 360: p. 2889-2904.
- Kennette, D., et al., Uptake of trace metals by the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris l. in urban contaminated soils. Applied Soil Ecology, 2002. 19(2): p. 191-198.
- Hui, C.A., Lead distribution throughout soil, flora, and an invertebrate at a wetland skeet range. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 2002. 65(15): p. 1098-1107.
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